NIGERIA (1960 - PRESENT)

Nigeria (1960-present)

Pre-Crisis Phase (October 1, 1960-January 14, 1966):  The Federation of Nigeria formally achieved its independence from Britain and joined the Commonwealth of Nations (CON) on October 1, 1960.  On October 1, 1960, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, founder of the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), was appointed as prime minister (head of government) of the Federation of Nigeria.  Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe, leader of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons, was appointed as Governor-General (representative of Queen Elizabeth II, the Nigerian head of state) on November 16, 1960.  The Federal Republic of Nigeria was established on October 1, 1963, with Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as prime minister (head of government) and Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe as president (head of state).  President Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe dissolved the House of Representatives on December 8, 1964.  Parliamentary elections were held on December 30, 1964 and March 18, 1965, and the NPC won 162 out of 312 seats in the House of Representatives.  The National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) won 84 seats in the House of Representatives. The United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) boycotted the parliamentary elections.  Regional elections were held on October 11, 1965. Chief Samuel Akintola of the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) was re-elected as prime minister of the Western Region on October 11, 1965. Some 160 civilians and seven government policemen were killed in political violence in the Western Region following the regional elections. Some 20 individuals were killed in political violence in Ilesha on January 12, 1966.

Crisis Phase (January 15, 1966-July 5, 1967):  Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was deposed and killed in a military coup led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu and Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna on January 15, 1966.  Prime Minister Samuel Akintola of the Western Region and Prime Minister Ahmadu Bello of the Northern Region were also deposed and killed during the military coup on January 15, 1966.  The Supreme Military Council (SMC) headed by General Johnson Aguyi-Ironsi, a member of the predominantly Christian Ibo ethnic group, took control of the government and suspended the constitution on January 16, 1966. Twenty-two individuals were killed during the military coup.  Some 3,000 Nigerians fled as refugees to Dahomey (Benin).  The government of Ghana provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military government on January 17, 1966.  The Nigerian government abolished the four federal regions on May 24, 1966. Some 115 individuals, mostly ethnic Ibos, were killed in political violence on May 28-June 2, 1966.  Major General Aguyi-Ironsi was deposed and killed in a military coup led by Lt. Colonel Murtala Muhammed on July 29, 1966.  Some 30 individuals were killed in political violence in Lagos on July 29-August 1, 1966, and some 250,000 ethnic Ibos fled from the Northern Region to the Eastern Region following the military coup.  Lt. Colonel Yakuba Gowon was sworn in as the head of the federal military government following the military coup, and he restored the four federal regions on August 31, 1966.  Some 2,000 ethnic Ibos were killed in political violence in the Northern Region from September 29 to October 4, 1966.  Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, military governor of the Eastern Region of Nigeria, declared that the region would no longer recognize Lt. Colonel Yakubu Gowon as head of the federal military government on March 2, 1967.  Lt. Colonel Gowon assumed full powers as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and head of the military government on May 27, 1967.  Lt. Colonel Gowon proclaimed a state-of-emergency on May 28, 1967.  Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, military governor of the Eastern Region, declared the independence of the Republic of Biafra in southern Nigeria on May 30, 1967.

Conflict Phase (July 6, 1967-January 15, 1970): Government troops launched a military offensive against Biafran rebels on July 6, 1967. The Egyptian government provided military assistance (military aircraft and pilots) to the Nigerian government. The presidents of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and the Emperor of Ethiopia jointly appealed for a ceasefire and peaceful negotiations on July 8, 1967. The East African Community (EAC) offered to send a four-member conciliation commission (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia) to Nigeria, but the mediation offer was rejected by the government. The Vatican City appealed for peaceful negotiations in July 1967. Foreign Minister Emile Zinsou of Dahomey offered to mediate negotiations in August 1967, but the mediation offer was rejected by the Nigerian government.  The British government provided military assistance to the Nigerian government beginning on August 9, 1967. The government of the Soviet Union provided military assistance (military aircraft and 170 military technicians) to the Nigerian government beginning on August 19, 1967.  The Organization of African Unity (OAU) heads-of-state condemned the rebellion, and established a six-member consultative commission (Cameroon, Congo-Kinshasa, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Niger) chaired by Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia on September 14, 1967.  CON Secretary-General Arnold Smith attempted to facilitate negotiations between Biafran rebel and government representatives beginning in October 1967.  Government troops captured Enugu, the Biafran capital, on October 4, 1967.  Prime Minister Alexei Kosygin of the Soviet Union offered economic assistance to the government on October 16, 1967.  Some 2,000 government soldiers were killed during an attack against Biafran rebels near Onitsha on October 18, 1967.  The Switzerland-based NGO, World Council of Churches (WCC), established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to individuals displaced during the conflict beginning on November 20, 1967. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to individuals displaced during the conflict beginning in January 1968. The Society of Friends (Quakers) established a three-member committee to facilitate negotiations between the parties beginning on February 3, 1968. The Vatican and WCC jointly appealed for a ceasefire on March 20, 1968, but the ceasefire appeal was rejected by the parties. Government troops captured Onitsha on March 22, 1968. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) established a mission (“International Airlift West Africa”) to provide humanitarian assistance to individuals displaced during the conflict beginning in April 1968.  The Tanzanian government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to Biafra on April 13, 1968.  The government of Czechoslovakia imposed military sanctions (suspension of arms shipments) against the government and Biafran rebels on April 24, 1968.  CON Secretary-General Arnold Smith facilitated preliminary negotiations between the parties in London on May 2-15, 1968.  The government of Gabon provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to Biafra on May 8, 1968.  Government military aircraft attacked rebel targets in Port Harcourt and Aba on May 9, 1968, resulting in the deaths of 150 civilians.  The government of Ivory Coast provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to Biafra on May 15, 1968.  Government troops captured Port Harcourt on May 18, 1968.  The government of Zambia provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to Biafra on May 20, 1968.  CON Secretary-General Arnold Smith and President Milton Obote of Uganda facilitated formal negotiations between the parties in Kampala, Uganda on May 23-31, 1968.  The Dutch government imposed military sanctions (suspension of arms shipments) against the Nigerian government and Biafran rebels on June 6, 1968.  The Belgian government imposed military sanctions (suspension of arms shipments) against the Nigerian government and Biafran rebels on July 5, 1968. The American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) established a commission of inquiry, which visited the region from July to September 1968. The ICRC appointed August Lindt of Switzerland as coordinator of the ICRC mission in Nigeria and Biafra on July 19, 1968. The OAU consultative committee, chaired by President of Hamani Diori of Niger, facilitated preliminary negotiations between the parties in Niamey, Niger on July 20-26, 1968.  The French government expressed its support for the Biafran rebels on July 31, 1968, and provided military assistance (weapons and ammunition) to the Biafran rebels beginning in August 1968.  The OAU consultative committee, chaired by Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, facilitated formal negotiations between the parties in Addis Ababa between August 5 and September 9, 1968.  Government troops captured Aba on September 4, 1968.  The governments of Britain, Canada, Poland, and Sweden established a four-member fact-finding mission to investigate allegations of genocide by government troops beginning on September 7, 1968.  Government military aircraft bombed the Aguleri market near Onitsha on September 16, 1968, resulting in the deaths of 510 individuals.  Government military aircraft attacked Umuahia township on September 28, 1968, resulting in the deaths of 31 individuals.  Government troops killed two ICRC personnel, two WCC personnel, and 100 civilians in Okigwi on September 30, 1968.  OAU heads-of-state appealed for a ceasefire in September 1968.  The Joint Church Aid (JCA) mission – which consisted of the Catholic Relief Service (CRS), Caritas International (CI) – the Vatican City humanitarian assistance organization, and Church World Service (CWS) – was established in 1968. The AFSC and the Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to Nigerians beginning in January 1969. The Common African, Malagasy, and Mauritanian Organization (Organisation Commune Africaine et Malgache – OCAM) established a conciliation commission on January 29, 1969.  Prime Minister Harold Wilson of Britain attempted to mediate a ceasefire agreement between Biafran rebel and government representatives on March 27-31, 1969.  The OAU consultative committee facilitated negotiations between the parties in Monrovia, Liberia on April 17-20, 1969.  The OAU consultative committee appealed for a ceasefire on April 20, 1969.  UN Secretary-General U Thant appointed Said-Uddin Khan as his representative for relief activities in Nigeria on April 28, 1969.  Government military aircraft shot down an ICRC aircraft on June 5, 1969, and the ICRC suspended its airlift operation in Biafra on June 10, 1969.  August Lindt resigned as coordinator of the ICRC mission on June 19, 1969.  The ICRC terminated its humanitarian mission in Nigeria on October 2, 1969.  The Quaker mission ended its efforts to facilitate negotiations between the parties in November 1969.  The OAU consultative committee was dissolved on December 15, 1969. Biafran leader Colonel Ojukwu fled the country on January 11, 1970.  The governments of Denmark, Ireland, and the US provided humanitarian assistance to refugees beginning on January 12, 1970.  The governments of Australia, Ethiopia, Italy, Norway, and West Germany provided humanitarian assistance to refugees beginning on January 13, 1970.  The Nigerian government banned the JCA on January 14, 1970.  Biafra formally surrendered to government troops on January 15, 1970. Some 45,000 government troops, 45,000 Biafran rebels, and 30,000 civilians were killed, and some 500,000 individuals died as a result of starvation during the conflict.  Some three million individuals were internally displaced during the conflict.

Post-Conflict Phase (January 16, 1970-October 1, 1979):  Lt. Colonel Gowon was deposed in a military coup led by General Murtala Mohammed on July 29, 1975.  The Libyan government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of General Murtala Mohammed on July 30, 1975, and the British government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the Nigerian government on August 1, 1975.  The SMC appointed the 25-member Federal Executive Council (FEC) on August 6, 1975.  General Murtala Mohammed appointed a 50-member committee to draft a new constitution, and the committee convened on October 18, 1975.  Government troops and civilians clashed in Ugep on December 25, 1975, resulting in the deaths of nineteen individuals.  General Murtala Mohammed and 24 other military personnel were killed during a military rebellion headed by Lt. Colonel Bukur Suka Dimka on February 13, 1976, and Lt. General Olusegun Obasanjo was appointed as head of the SMC on February 14, 1976.  On March 11, 1976, more than 30 government soldiers, including Major-General Illya Bisalla and Lt. Colonel Dimka, were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion.  On May 16, 1976, Lt. Colonel Dimka and six other individuals were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion and assassination of General Murtala Mohammed.  The 50-member committee appointed in October 1975 submitted a draft constitution to the SMC on September 14, 1976.  The SMC formally established a 230-member Constituent Assembly on August 31, 1977, and the Constituent Assembly held its first meeting on October 6, 1977.  Nine individuals were killed during demonstrations in Lagos on April 20-28, 1978.  General Obasanjo ended the state-of-emergency and lifted the ban on political parties on September 21, 1978.  One the same day, the Constituent Assembly submitted a draft constitution, which created a presidential system of government in Nigeria.  Three political parties – the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN), the Nigerian People’s Party (NPP), and the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) – were organized on September 22, 1978.  Legislative elections were held on July 14, 1979, and the NPN won 168 out of 449 seats in the House of Representatives.  The UPN won 111 seats in the House of Representatives.  Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the NPN was elected president with 34 percent of the vote on August 11, 1979, and he was inaugurated as president on October 1, 1979.  The new constitution went into effect on October 1, 1979.

Post-Crisis Phase (October 2, 1979-December 30, 1983):  Government police and members of the Muslim fundamentalist (Yen Izala) sect headed by Malam Mohammadu Marwa clashed in Kano in northern Nigeria on December 18-31, 1980, resulting in the deaths of some 1,000 civilians and 50 government policemen.  Some 5,000 individuals were killed in political violence in 1980 and 1981.  Government police clashed with members of the Yen Izala sect in Maiduguri in the state of Borno and Kaduna in northeastern Nigeria on October 26-31, 1982, resulting in the deaths of some 100 government policemen and 400 civilians.  The government banned the Yen Izala sect on November 18, 1982.  The government expelled some 2.2 million illegal immigrants from the country between January 17 and February 28, 1983. Eight individuals were killed in political violence in Ibadan in the state of Oyo on July 8, 1983.  President Shagari was re-elected for a second term with 48 percent of the vote on August 6, 1983, and he was inaugurated on October 1, 1983.  The NPN won 13 out of 19 state governorships in elections on August 13, 1983.  Eighty-two individuals were killed in political violence in the state of Ondo on August 18-20, 1983.  Legislative elections were held on August 20-27, 1983, and the NPN won 60 out of 96 seats in the Senate and 306 out of 450 seats in the House of Representatives.  The UPN won 16 seats in the Senate and 51 seats in the House of Representatives.

Crisis Phase (December 31, 1983-May 29, 1999):  President Alhaji Shagari was deposed in a military coup led by Major General Muhammadu Buhari on December 31, 1983, and the 19-member Supreme Military Council (SMC) headed by General Buhari took control of the government on January 3, 1984.  Government troops clashed with members of a Muslim fundamentalist sect headed by Musa Makaniki in Yola in the state of Gongola on February 27, 1984, resulting in the deaths of some 1,000 individuals.  Government police clashed with members of the Muslim Fundamentalist sect Yen Izala headed by Yusufu Adamu in Gombe on April 26, 1985, resulting in the deaths of 150 individuals.  General Buhari was deposed in a military coup led by Major General Ibrahim Babangida on August 27, 1985, resulting in the deaths of one government policeman.  The 28-member Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC) headed by General Babangida took control of the government on August 29, 1985.  The government announced the discovery of a plot within the military to overthrow the government on December 20, 1985, and several hundred military personnel were arrested for their involvement in the plot.  Thirteen military personnel were convicted and sentenced to death on February 25, 1986.  Ten of the military personnel, including Major-General Mamman Vatsa, were executed in Lagos on March 5, 1986.  A new constitution went into effect on May 3, 1989, and the ban on political parties was lifted.  On October 7 1989, President Babangida dissolved thirteen political parties that had applied for registration since May 1989.  Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Major Gideon Orkar on April 22, 1990, resulting in the deaths of some 200 individuals.  Forty-two military personnel were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion on July 27, 1990, and twenty-seven individuals were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion on September 13, 1990.  Government police clashed with anti-government demonstrators in Lagos on May 4-13, 1992, resulting in the deaths of seven individuals.  Some 300 individuals were killed in religious violence throughout the country on May 16-18, 1992.  Legislative elections were held on July 4, 1992, and the Social Democratic Party (SDP) won 314 out of 593 seats in the House of Representatives.  The National Republican Convention (NRC) won 275 seats in the House of Representatives.  The Transitional Council (TC), a civilian government headed by Ernest Adegunle Shonekan, replaced the military government on January 4, 1993.  Moshood Abiola of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) was elected president with 58 percent of the vote on June 12, 1993.  President Babangida nullified the results of the presidential election on July 4, 1993, resulting in the deaths of eleven individuals during rioting in Lagos on July 5, 1993.  The European Community (EC) imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government on July 13, 1993.  President Babangida resigned on August 26, 1993, and the Interim National Government (ING) headed by Ernest Adegunle Shonekan formed a civilian government.  General Sani Abacha deposed the civilian government and dissolved the parliament on November 17-18, 1993.  The Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) headed by General Abacha took control of the government on November 24, 1993.  Moshood Abiola was arrested and charged with treason on June 23, 1994.  General Abacha lifted the ban on political activity on June 27, 1995.  The military government convicted and executed Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other members of the Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People (MOSOP) on November 10, 1995.  The London-based non-governmental organization Amnesty International  condemned the Nigerian government for the executions on November 10, 1995.  The European Union (EU) condemned the Nigerian government for the executions on November 10, 1995.  The CON imposed imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the government on November 11, 1995.  The CON established an eight-member Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG-Nigeria) on November 11, 1995, which consisted of the foreign ministers of Britain, Canada, Ghana, Jamaica, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, to monitor human rights and political conditions in the country.  The EU imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance and travel ban) and military sanctions (arms embargo) against the Nigerian government on November 20, 1995.  On December 22, 1995, the UN General Assembly approved a resolution condemning the Nigerian government for the executions of MOSOP members.  UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali sent a four-member fact-finding mission headed by Atsu Koffi Amega of Togo to investigate human rights conditions in Nigeria from March 28 to April 12, 1996.  The United Democratic Front of Nigeria (UDFN) was established on April 1, 1996.  The foreign ministers of the CON imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) and economic sanctions (travel embargo and freeze on foreign-held assets) against the government on April 24, 1996.  The CMAG-Nigeria sent a 17-member fact-finding mission to the country on November 18-20, 1996.  The government charged 15 individuals with treason on March 12, 1997.  The Canadian government imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the Nigerian government on March 13, 1997.  Government troops clashed with demonstrators in Ibadan on April 15, 1998, resulting in the deaths of at least three individuals.  At least three individuals were killed in an explosion in Lagos on April 23, 1998.  Legislative elections were held on April 25, 1998, and the United Nigeria Congress Party (UNCP) won 229 out of 282 seats in the House of Representatives.  The Democratic Party of Nigeria (DPN) won 39 seats in the House of Representatives.  Opposition political parties were banned from participating in the legislative elections and called for a boycott of the legislative elections.  General Sani Abacha died on June 8, 1998, and was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar.  Moshood Abiola died in prison on July 7, 1998.  The EU lifted economic sanctions (travel ban) against the Nigerian government on November 1, 1998.  Nigeria’s National Electoral Commission (NEC) requested international monitoring of local, state, and national elections to be held between December 5, 1998 and February 27, 1999.  Elections for local councils were held on December 5, 1998, and elections for state governors and assemblies were held on January 9, 1999.  The CON sent 17 short-term observers to monitor the election process from November 30, 1998 to January 11, 1999.  The Association of African Elections Authorities (AAEA) and the International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent 15 short-term observers headed by Kwadwo Afari-Gyan of Ghana to jointly observe the local elections from November 15 to December 8, 1998.  Nineteen individuals were killed in political violence in the Niger Delta region on February 1, 1999.   Legislative elections were held on February 20, 1999, and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) won 206 out of 360 seats in the House of Representatives.  The All People’s Party (APP) won 74 seats in the House of Representatives, and the Alliance for Democracy (AFD) won 68 seats in the House of Representatives.  Olusegun Obasanjo of the PDP defeated Olu Falae of the APP by a margin of 63 percent to 37 percent to win the presidential election on February 27, 1999.  The AAEA/IFES sent 28 short-term observers to jointly observed the elections from February 16 to March 2, 1999.  The OAU sent 50 short-term observers from 18 countries headed by Ali Hassan Mwinyi of Tanzania to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from February 18 to March 2, 1999.  The CON sent 34 short-term observers from 23 countries headed by Ketumile Masire of Botswana to monitor the elections from February 12 to March 2, 1999.  The National Democratic Institute (NDI) and The Carter Center (TCC) sent 60 short-term observers from 10 countries headed by former U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Mahamane Ousmane of Niger to jointly monitor the legislative and presidential elections from February 17 to March 1, 1999.  The International Republican Institute (IRI) sent 43 short-term observers headed by General Colin Powell of the U.S. to monitor the president election from February 22 to February 28, 1999.  The EU sent 100 short-term observers to monitor the presidential election.  The Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF) sent short-term observers to monitor the presidential election.  General Abdulsalami Abubakar signed into law a new constitution on May 5, 1999.  The CON lifted diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the Nigerian government on May 29, 1999.  Olusegun Obasanjo was inaugurated as president on May 29, 1999.

Post-Crisis Phase (May 30, 1999-January 23, 2006):  The EU lifted military sanctions (arms embargo) against the Nigerian government on June 1, 1999.  The CON lifted military sanctions (arms embargo) and economic sanctions (travel embargo and freeze on foreign-held assets) against the Nigerian government on November 1, 1999.  Some 100 individuals were killed in ethnic violence in Lagos on November 28, 1999.  Governor Alhaji Ahmed Sani announced the introduction of Islamic law Sharia in the state of Zamfra on January 27, 2000.  The state of Kaduna introduced Sharia in February 2000.  Some 400 individuals were killed, and some 100,000 individuals were displaced as a result of violence in the city of Kaduna in the state of Kaduna on February 21-23, 2000.  More than 50 individuals were killed in religious violence in the town of Aba in southeastern Nigeria on February 28, 2000.  The ICRC provided humanitarian assistance to individuals adversely affected by the violence in the state of Kaduna beginning on February 28, 2000.  President Olusegun Obasanjo met with the country’s 36 state governors on February 29, 2000, and the group agreed to suspend Sharia in the states of Niger, Sokoto, and Zamfara.  Government police arrested 40 supporters of an independent state of Biafra on April 19, 2000.  Some 200 individuals were killed as a result of religious violence in the state of Kaduna on May 22-25, 2000.  Some 25 individuals were killed in violence in Bambam in the state of Gombe on September 7-9, 2000.  Bariya Ibrahim Magazu was given a sentence of 180 lashes for fornication by a Sharia court in the state of Zamfara in September 2000. Some 100 individuals were killed and some 20,000 individuals were displaced as a result of violence in Lagos in October 2000. Some 1,500 individuals were killed as a result of violence in 2000. A reduced Sharia sentence of 100 lashes against 17-year old Bariya Ibrahim Magazu was carried out in the state of Zamfara on January 19, 2001.  The government of Canada condemned the flogging on January 22, 2001. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and Human Rights Watch (HRW) condemned the flogging on January 23, 2001.  Government police arrested the leader of a Biafran secessionist movement, Ralph Uwazuruike, on February 8, 2001.  Some 200 individuals were killed, and some 50,000 individuals were displaced as a result of violence in the state of Nassarawa on June 12-26, 2001. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in violence in the state of Bauchi in July 2001.  Some 1,000 individuals were killed in religious violence in Jos in the state of Plateau on September 7-17, 2001.  President Olusegun Obasanjo deployed government troops to suppress the violence in Jos on September 8, 2001.  Members of the Tiv ethnic group killed 19 government soldiers in the village of Zaki-Biam in the state of Benue on October 11-12, 2001. Some 100 individuals were killed as a result of violence in Kano on October 13-14, 2001. Government troops killed some 200 civilians, and some 300,000 were displaced as a result of the violence in the state of Benue on October 22-24, 2001. Eleven individuals were killed as a result of violence in the state of Kaduna state in northern Nigeria on November 2-4, 2001. Some 20 individuals were killed as a result of violence in the village of Dagwom Turu in the state of Plateau on December 30, 2001. Some 400,000 individuals were displaced as a result of violence in 2001.  Sani Yakubu Rodi was executed under Sharia in a prison in Kaduna on January 3, 2002.  The U.S.-based NGO, Human Rights Watch (HRW), condemned the execution on January 8, 2002.  Government police clashed with members of the Oodua People’s Congress (OPC) in southwest Nigeria on January 12, 2002, resulting in the deaths of 36 individuals.  Some 100 individuals were killed as a result of violence in Lagos on February 2-5, 2002.  Government troops were deployed to suppress the violence in Lagos on February 5, 2002.  The Nigerian government declared that certain aspects of Sharia were unconstitutional on March 22, 2002.  The death sentence against Safiya Husaini for adultery was overturned by a Sharia appeals court on March 25, 2002.  On April 20, 2002, the U.S. government agreed to provide $4 million in military assistance to the government.  Muslim clerics in the state of Oyo introduced Sharia on May 1, 2002, but the state government declared that it would not enforce Islamic law in the state.  Some 15 individuals were killed as a result of violence in Jos in the state of Plateau on May 2, 2002.  Some 100 individuals were killed as a result of violence in the town of Nembe in the state of Bayelsa on July 20-22, 2002.  On August 3, 2002, President Olusegun Obasanjo announced a postponement of local elections, which were scheduled for August 10, 2002.  The Nigerian House of Representatives demanded the resignation of President Olusegun Obasanjo on August 13, 2002, but the demand was rejected on August 14, 2002.  Six individuals were killed as a result of violence in the village of Kassa on October 14, 2002.  Eight individuals were killed as a result of violence in Jos on October 22-23, 2002.  On November 13, 2002, President Olusegun Obasanjo granted amnesty to 80 government soldiers who fought in the Biafran conflict on the side of the rebels between 1967 and 1970.  Some 215 individuals were killed in violence in Kaduna and Abuja on November 20-23, 2002.  Some 4,500 individuals were displaced in Kaduna.  Some 25,000 Nigerians were refugees (externally displaced) in 2002.  Six individuals were killed in political violence in the state of Benue on February 19, 2003.  Some 64 individuals were killed in northeastern Nigeria on February 24-28, 2003.  Fulani tribesmen attacked the village of Dumne on February 27, 2003, resulting in the deaths of 50 individuals.  The U.S.-based NGOs, NDI and The Carter Center, sent a pre-election assessment mission to Nigeria on March 16-21, 2003.  Government police clashed with supporters of the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) near the town of Owerri on March 29, 2003, resulting in the deaths of seven individuals.  Legislative elections were held on April 12, 2003, and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) won 76 out of 109 seats in the House of Representatives, and the All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) won 27 seats in the House of Representatives.  President Olusegun Obasanjo was re-elected with 62 percent of the vote on April 19, 2003.  The African Union (AU) sent 21 observers headed by Abdoulaye Bathily of Senegal to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from April 3 to April 22, 2003.  The EU sent seven election experts, 38 long-term observers, and 62 short-term observers headed by Max van den Berg of the Netherlands to monitor the elections from March 11 to May 20, 2003.  The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) sent short-term observers to monitor the presidential and legislative elections.  The NDI sent 50 short-term observers from 12 countries to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from April 7 to April 21, 2003.  The CON sent fourteen observers and eight staff headed by Salim Ahmed Salim of Tanzania to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from April 8 to April 25, 2003.  The IRI sent 55 short-term observers to monitor the legislative and presidential elections.  Some 12,000 individuals fled as refugees as a result of ethnic/political violence in the Nigerian Delta region, including the town of Warri, in May 2003.  Some 100 individuals were killed in ethnic violence in the town of Warri on August 15-19, 2003.  Some 78 individuals were killed in religious violence in Yelwa on February 4, 2004.  Some 630 individuals were killed in religious violence in Yelwa on May 2-4, 2004.  President Olusegun Obasanjo declared a state-of-emergency in the state of Plateau on May 18, 2004.  On May 9, 2005, government authorities charged some 80 members of the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) with holding an illegal “secessionist rally” in southeastern Nigeria.  On July 6, 2005, government authorities dropped charged against 53 Nigerian “footballers” (soccer players) who were arrested for playing in a soccer tournament organized by the banned MASSOB.  Ralph Uwazuruike, leader of MASSOB, was arrested by government police on October 27, 2005.  Ralph Uwazuruike, leader of MASSOB, and six supporters were charged with treason by government authorities in Abuja on November 8, 2005.  Government police and ethnic-Ibo supporters of MASSOB clashed in Onitsha in southeast Nigeria on December 5-6, 2005, resulting in the deaths of at least three individuals.

Crisis Phase (January 24, 2006-present):  Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) militants attacked the offices of an oil company in Port Harcourt on January 24, 2006, resulting in the deaths of seven government policemen and two civilians.  More than 30 Christians were killed during protests by Muslims in the state of Borno on February 18, 2006.  At least 80 individuals, mostly Muslims, were killed in anti-Muslim riots in the town of Onitsha on February 21-22, 2006.  MEND militants exploded a car bomb near a military barracks in Port Harcourt on April 19, 2006, resulting in the deaths of two individuals.  MEND militants killed one individual, a U.S.-based oil company executive, in Port Harcourt on May 10, 2006.  MEND militants killed six government policemen in Port Harcourt on May 14, 2006.  Government troops clashed with MEND militants in the Niger Delta region on June 6, 2006, resulting in the deaths of at least five government soldiers and one militant.  Government troops killed ten MEND militants in the Niger Delta region on August 20, 2006.  MEND militants killed ten government soldiers in the Niger Delta region on October 2, 2006.  Government troops clashed with MEND militants in the Niger Delta region on October 4, 2006, resulting in the deaths of nine government soldiers.  Government police killed two protesters in Jos on October 13, 2006.  Governor Ayo Fayose of the state of Ekiti was impeached on corruption charges by the state assembly on October 16, 2006.  On October 19, 2006, President Olusegun Obasanjo declared a state-of-emergency in the state of Ekiti after suggesting that the impeachment of Governor Ayo Fayose was “a clear case of usurpation of power” by the state assembly.  One government soldiers was killed by MEND militants in the Niger Delta region on November 22, 2006.  MEND militants killed three security guards in Obagi in the Niger Delta region on December 21, 2006.  Some 13,000 Nigerians were refugees (externally displaced) in 2006.  Gunmen killed 12 individuals, including four local chiefs, on a boat traveling to the village of Kula in the Niger Delta region on January 16, 2007.  Gunmen killed two oil workers on a vessel near Bonny Island in the Niger Delta region on January 16, 2007.  The ECOWAS sent a six member (pre-election) fact-finding mission led by Sir Dawda Jawara of Gambia to Nigeria on February 10-27, 2007.  MEND militants killed one government soldier in the Niger Delta region on March 4, 2007.  Elections for state governors and assemblies were held on April 14, 2007.  Government troops clashed with Islamic militants in Kano on April 17-18, 2007, resulting in the deaths of some 25 militants.  Legislative elections were held on April 21, 2007, and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) won 260 out of 360 seats in the House of Representatives.  The All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) won 62 seats in the House of Representatives.  Umaru Yar’Adua of the PDP was elected president with 70 percent of the vote on April 21, 2007, and he was inaugurated as president on May 29, 2007.  The ECOWAS sent 200 short-term observers from 29 countries led by Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara of Gambia to monitor the governorship, state assembly, legislative, and presidential elections from April 8 to April 23, 2007.  The CON sent eleven short-term observers led by Joseph Warioba on Tanzania to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from April 10 to April 27, 2007.  The EU sent eleven election experts, 66 long-term observers, and 60 short-term observers from 23 countries led by Max van den Berg of the Netherlands to monitor the legislative and presidential elections.  The NDI sent 61 observers (long-term and short-term) from 16 countries to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from March 15 to April 23, 2007.  The IRI sent 59 short-term observers to monitor the legislative and presidential elections.  At least 200 individuals were killed in election-related violence.  MEND militants killed two government policemen in Port Harcourt on April 27, 2007.  MEND militants attacked Chevron facilities in the state of Bayelsa on May 1, 2007, resulting in the deaths of ten individuals.  Umaru Yar’Adua was inaugurated as president on May 29, 2007.  MEND militants declared a unilateral ceasefire on June 2, 2007.  Government troops killed eight MEND militants in the state of Bayelsa on June 13, 2007.  Government troops clashed with MEND militants on the Ogboinbiri oil platform in the Niger Delta region on June 21, 2007, resulting in the deaths of 12 militants, two civilians, and one government soldier.  MEND militants attacked two boats in the Niger Delta region near Port Harcourt on August 3, 2007, resulting in the deaths of three individuals.  MEND militants ended their unilateral cessation of military hostilities on September 24, 2007.  Government naval personnel clashed with MEND militants in the Niger Delta region on October 31, 2007, resulting in the deaths of at least two individuals.  Six individuals were killed in local election-related violence in the state of Kano on November 19, 2007.  Some 14,000 Nigerians were refugees (externally displaced) in 2007.  Government police clashed with Niger Delta militants in Port Harcourt on January 1, 2008, resulting in the deaths of four government policemen, six militants, and three civilians.  MEND militants declared a unilateral ceasefire on June 24, 2008.  MEND militants ended their unilateral ceasefire on July 12, 2008.  MEND militants declared a unilateral ceasefire on September 21, 2008.  Some 381 individuals were killed and some 10,000 individuals were displaced as a result of religious violence in Jos in the state of Plateau on November 28-29, 2008.  Some 14,000 Nigerians were refugees (externally displaced) in 2008.  MEND militants ended their unilateral ceasefire on January 30, 2009.  Four individuals were killed in religious violence in Bauchi in the state of Plateau on February 21, 2009.  Government troops launched a military offensive against MEND militants in the Niger Delta on May 15, 2009.  On June 26, 2009, President Umaru Yar’Adua announced an amnesty plan for militants fighting against the government in the Niger Delta region.  MEND militants killed five oil industry workers in Lagos on July 11-12, 2009.  MEND militants declared a 60-day ceasefire on July 15, 2009.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in northeastern Nigeria on July 26-30, 2009, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,000 individuals.  Boko Haram, a Sunni Muslim group established by Mohammed Yusuf in Maiduguri in the state of Borno in 2002, supported the establishment of Sharia in Nigeria.  Government troops captured and killed Mohammed Yusuf, founder and leader of Boko Haram, in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on July 30, 2009.  The Nigerian Government granted amnesty to Niger Delta militants who agreed to lay down their arms between August 6 and October 4, 2009.  MEND militants ended their 90-day ceasefire with the government on October 16, 2009, but announced a unilateral ceasefire with the government on October 25, 2009.  MEND militants killed two government sailors on an oil tanker in the Niger Delta on November 24, 2009.  Government troops clashed with members of the Islamic sect Kala Kato in the state of Bauchi on December 27-28, 2009, resulting in the deaths of at least 38 individuals.  Some 200 individuals were killed and more than 20,000 individuals were displaced as a result of religious violence in Jos in the state of Plateau on January 17-20, 2010.  MEND militants ended their unilateral ceasefire with the government on January 30, 2010.  Vice-President Goodluck Jonathan was approved as Acting-President by the National Assembly on February 10, 2010.  President Umaru Yar’Adua died of an illness on May 5, 2010, and Vice-President Goodluck Johnson was sworn in as Interim President on May 6, 2010.  MEND militants bombed a Nigerian independence day parade in Abuja on October 1, 2010, resulting in the deaths of twelve individuals.  Henry Okah, leader of the MEND militant group that claimed responsibility for the Abuja bombings, was arrested by South African police in Johannesburg on October 2, 2010.  Boko Haram militants attacked a government police station in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on October 11, 2010.  Boko Haram militants killed some 80 individuals in bombings in Jos in the state of Plateau on December 24, 2010.  Six individuals were killed in attacks on churches in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on December 24, 2010.  On December 27, 2010, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon condemned the “deplorable acts of violence” in Nigeria.  Boko Haram militants killed three government police officers and two civilians in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on December 29, 2010.  At least four individuals were killed in a bombing in Abuja on December 31, 2010.  Some 18 individuals were killed in religious violence in Jos in the state of Plateau on January 7-10, 2011.  Another 13 individuals were killed in religious violence near Jos on January 11, 2011.  Eleven individuals were killed in a stampede at a political rally in Port Harcourt on February 12, 2011.  Three individuals were killed in a bombing at a political rally near Abuja on March 3, 2011.  Six individuals were killed in a bombing of an office of Nigeria’s election commission in Suleja on April 8, 2011.  Legislative elections were held on April 9, 2011, and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) won 199 out of 360 seats in the House of Representatives.  The Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN) won 69 seats in the House of Representatives.  Goodluck Jonathan of the PDP was elected president with 59 percent of the vote on April 16, 2011.  The Commonwealth of Nations (CON) sent 13 observers and ten staff members led by Festus Gontebanye Mogae of Botswana to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from March 25 to April 18, 2011.  The AU sent 40 short-term observers led by Ahmed Issack Hassan from Kenya and former President John Agyekum Kufor of Ghana to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from March 27 to April 18, 2011.  The EU sent nine election experts, 52 long-term observers, and 60 short-term observers from 29 countries led by Alojz Peterle of Slovenia to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from March 1 to May 21, 2011. The NDI sent 12 long-term observers and 52 short-term observers from 23 countries led by Joseph Clark from Canada to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from January to May 22, 2011.  The ECOWAS sent 300 short-term observers led by Amos Claudius Sawyer of Liberia to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from April 12 to April 17, 2011.  The Congress for Progressive Change (CPC) claimed fraud in the presidential election.  At least three individuals were killed in bombings in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on April 25, 2011.  At least 16 individuals were killed in an attack on a predominantly Christian village in the state of Bauchi on May 7, 2011.  Some 800 individuals were killed, and some 65,000 individuals were displaced following the April 2011 elections.  Goodluck Jonathan was sworn in as president on May 29, 2011.  At least 14 individuals were killed in Boko Haram bombings near the Shadawanka military barracks in the state of Bauchi on May 29, 2011.  Eight individuals were killed in a Boko Haram suicide bombing at the police headquarters in Abuja on June 16, 2011.  Boko Haram militants attacked a police station and bank in the town of Kankara in the state of Katsina on June 20, 2011, resulting in the deaths of seven individuals.  Boko Haram militants killed at least ten individuals in a series of attacks in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on July 3, 2011.  Government troops killed eleven Boko Haram militants in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on July 9, 2011.  Boko Haram militants killed three government policemen and one civilian in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on August 19, 2011.  Boko Haram militants attacked several police stations and banks in the town of Gombi in the state of Adamawa on August 25, 2011, resulting in the deaths of at least 12 individuals.  The UN compound in Abuja was damaged by a suicide car bombing by Boko Haram militants on August 26, 2011, resulting in the deaths of 23 individuals.  UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon condemned the suicide car bombing.  More than 40 individuals were killed in religious violence in Jos in the state of Plateau on September 1, 2011.  At least 27 individuals were killed in religious violence in the villages of Babale, Dabwak, and Tatu in the state of Plateau on September 3-4, 2011.  At least 19 individuals were killed during an attack on the village of Lingyado in the state of Zamfara on October 2, 2011.  As of October 2011, there were some 370,000 internally-displaced persons (IDPs) in Nigeria, including some 74,000 IDPs in camps.  Boko Haram militants attacked the police headquarter, several government buildings, two banks, and several churches in Damaturu in northern Nigeria on November 4, 2011, resulting in the deaths of more than 100 individuals.  Boko Haram militants attacked a military school near Kano on December 15, 2011, resulting in the deaths of four military officers.  Government policemen clashed with Boko Haram militants in Kano on December 17, 2011, resulting in the deaths of three policemen and four militants.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in Damaturu, Maiduguri, and other towns in northern Nigeria on December 22-23, 2011, resulting in the deaths of at least 68 individuals.  At least 42 individuals were killed in church bombings by Boko Haram militants in Madalla, Jos, Gadaka, and Damaturu on December 25, 2011.  Representatives of the AU, EU, and Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) condemned the church bombings.  UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and the UN Security Council condemned the church bombings.  Representatives of the governments of Canada, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Qatar, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, U.S, and Zambia condemned the church bombings.  At least 50 individuals were killed in ethnic violence in the state of Ebonyi on December 31, 2011.  President Goodluck Jonathan declared a state of emergency in the states of Yobe, Borno, Plateau, and Niger on December 31, 2011.  Some 90,000 Nigerians were displaced in Damaturu in December 2011.  Boko Haram militants attacked the town of Mubi in the state of Adamawa on January 5, 2012, resulting in the deaths of at least 18, mostly ethnic Ibo, individuals.  Eight individuals were killed in Yola in the state of Adamawa on January 5, 2012.  At least five individuals were killed at a mosque and Islamic school in the city of Benin on January 9, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed eight individuals, including four policemen, in the town of Potiskum in the state of Yobe on January 9, 2012.  Boko Haram militants attacked police stations and government buildings in Kano on January 20, 2012, resulting in the deaths of some 150 civilians and 32 government policemen.  The U.S. government condemned Boko Haram on January 24, 2012.  Government troops killed eleven Boko Haram militants in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on January 28, 2012.  The military headquarters in Kaduna was damaged by a suicide bombing by Boko Haram on February 8, 2012.  Government troops killed eight Boko Haram militants in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on February 20, 2012.  Boko Haram militants attacked a government police station and bank in the town of Jama’are on February 27, 2012, resulting in the deaths of three policemen.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 20 individuals at churches in northern Nigeria on April 29, 2012.  Boko Haram militants attacked a police convoy in the town of Jalingo in the state of Taraba on April 30, 2012, resulting in the deaths of eleven individuals.  Boko Haram militants killed at least nine individuals in a suicide attack on a church in the state of Bauchi on June 3, 2012.  Government troops killed 16 suspected Boko Haram militants in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on June 5-6, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed at least five individuals in a suicide bombing of the police headquarters in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on June 8, 2012.  Some 50 individuals were killed by Boko Haram militants in suicide bombings of churches in the state of Kaduna on June 17, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed some 130 individuals in the state of Plateau on June 17, 2012.  At least five individuals were killed in a suicide bombing of a mosque in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on July 13, 2012.  MEND militants killed two government soldiers in a clash in the Niger Delta region on August 4, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed at least six government soldiers and two civilians in a suicide bombing of a military convoy in Damaturu in the state of Yobe on August 5, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed 19 individuals at a church in Okene in the state of Kogi on August 6, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed two government soldiers near a mosque in Okene in the state of Kogi on August 7, 2012.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on August 12, 2012, resulting in the deaths of 20 militants and one government soldier.  Government troops killed seven suspected Boko Haram militants in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on September 7, 2012.  Government troops killed at least 35 suspected Boko Haram militants in the states of Adamawa and Yobe on September 24, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed more than 25 individuals in the town of Mubi on October 3, 2012.  Government troops killed some 30 suspected Boko Haram militants in Damaturu on October 7, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed three policemen during an attack on a government police station near Damaturu on November 9, 2012.  Eleven individuals were killed in a suicide bombing of a military barracks by Boko Haram militants in Jaji in the state of Kaduna on November 25, 2012.  Boko Haram militants attacked a government police station in Abuja on November 26, 2012, resulting in the deaths of two policemen.  Boko Haram militants killed ten individuals in the village of Chibok and five government policemen in Gamboru Ngala in the state of Borno on December 1-2, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed six individuals at a church in the village of Peri in the state of Yobe on December 24, 2012.  Boko Haram militants killed 15 individuals near Maiduguri in the state of Borno on December 28, 2012.  Some 600 individuals were killed by Boko Haram militants in 2012.  Boko Haram militants attacked a government police station and government office in the town of Song in the state of Adamawa on January 2, 2013.  Government troops clashed with MEND militants in the state of Ogun on January 9, 2013, resulting in the deaths of 40 civilians, seven militants, and three government soldiers.  Boko Haram militants killed 23 individuals in Damboa in the state of Borno and Kano on January 21-22, 2013.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in the state of Borno on February 1, 2013, resulting in the deaths of 17 militants and one government soldier.  MEND militants attacked an oil vessel near Bonny Island in the Niger Delta region on February 4, 2013, resulting in the death of one government sailor.  MEND militants attacked an oil barge in the Niger Delta on February 5, 2013, resulting in the deaths of four foreign oil workers.  Four opposition political parties merged to form the All Progressive Congress (APC) on February 6, 2013.  Government troops killed 20 Boko Haram militants in the village of Monguno in the state of Borno on March 3, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 22 individuals in a suicide car bombing of a bus station in Kano on March 18, 2013.  Henry Okah, former leader of the MEND militant group, was sentenced to 24 years in prison by a South African court on March 26, 2013.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in Kano on March 31, 2013, resulting in the deaths of 14 militants and one government soldier.  MEND militants killed twelve government policemen in the state of Bayelsa on April 6, 2013.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in the town of Baga on April 19-20, 2013, resulting in the deaths of dozens of individuals.  Boko Haram militants attacked military barracks, a prison, and a police station in the town of Bama in the state of Borno on May 7, 2013, resulting in the deaths of 22 policemen, 14 prison guards, two government soldiers, four civilians, and 13 militants.  Boko Haram militants killed 53 individuals in the state of Benue on May 14, 2013.  President Goodluck Jonathan declared a state of emergency and government troops launched a military offensive against Boko Haram militant camps in the states of Borno, Yobe, and Adamawa on May 14, 2013.  Some 42 individuals, including at least 27 students, were killed by Boko Haram militants during an attack against a boarding school in the town of Potiskum in the state of Yobe on July 6, 2013.  Boko Haram militants attacked a government police station and bank in the town of Karim Lamido in the state of Taraba on July 6, 2013, resulting in the deaths of three policemen.  Boko Haram militants killed 20 individuals in the town of Baga in the state of Borno on July 27, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 12 individuals in Kano on July 29, 2013.  Boko Haram militants attacked a military base in the town of Malam Fatori and a police station in the town of Bama in the state of Borno on August 4-5, 2013, resulting in the deaths of at least 32 militants, two government soldiers, and one government policeman.  Boko Haram militants killed 44 individuals at a mosque in the town of Konduga and 12 individuals in the village of Ngom in the state of Borno on August 11, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed 11 individuals in the town of Damboa in the state of Borno on August 15, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed 44 individuals in the village of Demba in the state of Borno on August 19, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 20 pro-government militiamen in the town of Bama and the village of Damasak in the state of Borno on August 25-26, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 24 pro-government militiamen near the town of Monguno in the state of Borno on August 30, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed 15 individuals in the town of Gajiram and five individuals in the village of Bulabilin Ngaura in the state of Borno on September 4-5, 2013.  Government troops killed some 50 Boko Haram militants in the state of Borno on September 6, 2013.  Boko Haram militants clashed with members of a pro-government militia in the town of Benisheik in the state of Borno on September 8, 2013.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants near Maiduguri in the state of Borno on September 10-12, 2013, resulting in the deaths of several dozen militants and at least 16 government soldiers.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 143 individuals on the road between Maiduguri and Damaturu in the state of Borno on September 17, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 16 individuals on the road between Maiduguri and Damboa in the state of Borno on September 19, 2013.  Government security forces clashed with suspected Boko Haram militants in Abuja on September 20, 2013, resulting in the deaths of at least seven individuals.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 41 students at an agriculture college in Gujba in the state of Yobe on September 28, 2013.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in Damboa in the state of Borno on October 5, 2013, resulting in the deaths of at least 20 individuals.  Boko Haram militants killed 19 individuals near the town of Logumani in the state of Borno on October 20, 2013.  Government troops killed 74 suspected Boko Haram militants in the villages of Galangi and Lawanti in the state of Borno on October 24, 2013.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in Damaturu in the state of Yobe on October 24-25, 2013, resulting in the deaths of dozens of individuals.  Boko Haram militants killed 27 individuals in the village of Gulumba in the state of Borno on October 31, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed 13 individuals in the village of T-Junction on the state of Borno on November 2, 2013.  Boko Haram militants attacked a wedding convoy near the town of Bama in the state of Borno on November 2, 2013, resulting in the deaths of more than 30 individuals.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants in Kano on November 9, 2013, resulting in the deaths of five militants and two government soldiers.  On November 13, 2013, the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) stated that some 40,000 Nigerians had been displaced to Niger during the recent Nigerian military offensive against Boko Haram militants.  On November 13, 2013, the U.S. government designated Nigeria’s Boko Haram and Ansaru militant groups as “foreign terrorist organizations.”  Boko Haram militants killed 12 individuals in the village of Sandiya in the state of Borno on November 23, 2013.  Government troops killed more than 50 Boko Haram militants in the Gwoza hills in the state of Borno on November 28, 2013.  Boko Haram militants attacked several military bases in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on December 2, 2013, resulting in the deaths of several individuals.  Boko Haram militants attacked a military barracks in the town of Bama in the state of Borno on December 20, 2013, resulting in the deaths of at least 20 government soldiers.  Government troops clashed with Boko Haram militants near the border with Cameroon in the state of Borno on December 23, 2013, resulting in the deaths of some 50 militants, 15 government soldiers, and five civilians.  Government troops killed some 56 Boko Haram militants in Alafa forest in the state of Borno on December 28, 2013.  Boko Haram militants killed eight individuals in the village of Tashan Alade in the state of Borno on December 29, 2013.  Some 470,000 Nigerians were displaced, mostly as a result of the Boko Haram insurgency, in 2013 (more than three million Nigerians overall were internally-displaced at the end of 2013).  At least 17 individuals were killed in a Boko Haram car bombing in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on January 14, 2014.  Boko Haram militants killed 52 individuals in the village of Kawuri in the state of Borno and 22 individuals in the village of Waga Chakawa in the state of Adamawa on January 26, 2014.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 39 individuals in the town of Konduga in the state of Borno on February 11, 2014.  Boko Haram militants killed some 106 individuals in the village of Izghe in the state of Borno on February 15, 2014.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 29 students at a boarding school in Buni Yadi in the state of Yobe on February 24-25, 2014.  Boko Haram militants attacked the town of Michika and the villages of Shuwa and Kirchinga in the state of Adamawa on February 26, 2014, resulting in the deaths of 37 civilians and six militants.  A coalition of west African troops from Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad, known as the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF), launched a joint military offensive against Boko Haram militants in northeastern Nigeria and neighboring countries from January 23 to December 24, 2015, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,000 militants, civilians, and west African soldiers.  On January 29, 2015, the AU Peace and Security Council (PSC) authorized the deployment of the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF) consisting of between 8,500 and 10,000 troops from the Benin (150 soldiers), Cameroon (2,250), Chad (3,000 soldiers), Niger (1,000 soldiers), and Nigeria (3,000 soldiers) to combat Boko Haram militants in the Lake Chad Basin.  The mandate of the MNJTF, which was originally established by the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) on March 21, 1994, was to provide security for areas affected by the activities of the Boko Haram and other terrorist groups, facilitate the implementation of stabilization programs such as the return of internally-displaced persons and refugees, and facilitate humanitarian assistance to affected populations.  Major-General Tukur Yusuf Buratai of Nigeria was appointed as the first commander of the MNJTF in May 2015.  Chadian troops attacked Boko Haram militants in Gamboru on February 4, 2015, resulting in the deaths of some 200 militants and nine Chadian soldiers.  Boko Haram militants pledged allegiance to the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) on March 7, 2015.  Government troops recaptured the towns of Bama and Gwoza from Boko Haram militants on March 16 and March 27, 2015.  Boko Haram militants attacked an island in Lake Chad on April 25, 2015, resulting in the deaths of 46 Nigerian soldiers and 28 civilians.  Muhammadu Buhari of the All Progressives Congress (APC) was elected president with 54 percent of the vote on March 28-29, 2015, and he was sworn in as president of Nigeria on May 29, 2015.  The APC won 225 out of 360 seats in the House of Representatives.  The People’s Democratic Party (PDP) won 125 seats in the House of Representatives.  Boko Haram militants killed 41 individuals in elected-related violence.  The AU sent 84 long-term and short-term observers led by former President Amos Sawyer of Liberia to monitor the presidential and legislative elections.  The CON sent ten short-term observers led by former President Bakili Muluzi of Malawi to monitor the presidential and legislative elections on March 21-30, 2015.  The ECOWAS sent 12 long-term and 225 short-term observers led by former President John Kufuor of Ghana to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from January 23 to March 29, 2015.  The EU sent 30 long-term observers and more than 60 short-term observers from 27 countries led by Santiago Fisas Ayxela from Spain to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from January 12 to March 30, 2015.  Nigerian governor elections were held on April 11, 2015.  The EU sent 58 observers from 26 countries to monitor the governor elections.  At least 30 individuals were killed in election-related violence on April 11, 2015.  Government troops and Boko Haram militants clashed near Buni Yadi in the state of Yobe on January 7-8, 2017, resulting in the deaths of five government soldiers and more than 15 militants.  Nigerian government aircraft accidentally bombed a refugee camp in the state of Borno on January 17, 2017, resulting in the deaths of 115 individuals. Six individuals were killed in suicide bombings in Maiduguri on March 18, 2017.  Government troops launched a military offensive against Boko Haram militants on April 2, 2017.  Boko Haram militants killed four civilians near Maiduguri on December 25, 2017.  Boko Haram militants killed four individuals near Maiduguri in the state of Borno on April 26, 2018.  Boko Haram militants ambushed and killed five government soldiers near the town of Gwoza in the state of Borno on May 31, 2018.  Boko Haram militants killed nine government soldiers in the town of Gajiram in the state of Borno on June 18, 2018.  Boko Haram militants attacked government soldiers near the town of Geidam in the state of Yobe on Jul 20, 2018, resulting in the deaths of 31 soldiers.  Boko Haram militants attacked government troops in the village of Metele in the state of Borno on November 22, 2018, resulting in the deaths of some 70 soldiers.  Government troops clashed with Islamic State’s West Africa Province (ISWAP) militants led by Abu Musab al-Barnawi in northeastern Nigeria on July 15, 2018.  ISWAP militants captured the town of Gudumbali in the state of Borno on September 8, 2018.  On October 31, 2018, Boko Haram militants killed at least 15 individuals in several villages in the state of Borno, including Kofa, Dalori, and Bulabrin.  On November 18, 2018, ISWAP militants attacked a government militant base in the town of Metele, resulting in the deaths of more than 100 soldiers.  President Muhammadu Buhari and the main opposition political party presidential candidates signed the National Peace Accord in Abuja on February 13, 2019, promising to call on their supporters “to refrain from violence or any acts that may in any way jeopardize our collective vision of a free, fair and credible election”.  President Muhammadu Buhari was re-elected with 56 percent of the vote on February 23, 2019.  The All Progressives Congress (APC) won 217 out of 360 seats in the House of Representatives, and the People’s Democratic Party won 115 seats in the House of Representatives.  The ECOWAS sent 30 long-term observers and 170 short-term observers led by former President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of Liberia to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from January 13 to February 24, 2019.  The AU sent 50 short-term observers led by former Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn Boshe of Ethiopia to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from February 9 to February 28, 2019.  The CON sent short-term observers led by former President Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania to monitor presidential and legislative elections from February 8 to February 23, 2019.  The EU sent 40 long-term and 91 long-term observers from 29 countries to monitor the presidential, legislative, and governor elections from January 21 to March 25, 2019.  The Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa (EISA) sent 16 short-term observers led by former President Rupiah Banda of Zambia to monitor presidential and legislative elections from February 6 to February 26, 2019.  The IRI and NDI sent 40 short-term observers from 19 countries to jointly monitor the presidential and legislative elections from February 11 to February 25, 2019.  Thirty individuals were killed in Boko Haram suicide bombings in Konduga in the state of Borno on June 16, 2019.  On July 4, 2019, Boko Haram militants ambushed and killed at least five government soldiers in Damboa in the state of Borno.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 65 individuals in the town of Nganzai in the state of Borno on July 27, 2019.  Government troops clashes with Boko Haram militants near Maiduguri in the state of Borno on August 15, 2019, resulting in the deaths of three government soldiers.  Boko Haram militants killed eight individuals in the village of Balumri in the state of Borno on August 31, 2019.  Boko Haram militants killed 19 Fulani cattle herders near Ngala on December 14, 2019.  Boko Haram militants killed seven individuals during an attack near Chibok in state of Borno on December 24, 2019.  As of December 31, 2019, more than 50,000 individuals have been killed and 2.4 million individuals have been displaced as a result of the Boko Haram insurgency since July 2009.  Boko Haram militants bombed a market in Gamboru in the state of Borno on January 6, 2020, resulting in the deaths of at least 38 individuals.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 30 individuals in the town of Auno in the state of Borno on February 9, 2020.  On April 6, 2020, MNJTF troops attacked Boko Haram militants in the Lake Chad region, resulting in the deaths of 19 militants.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 69 individuals in the village of Faduma Koloram in the state of Borno on June 9, 2020.  Boko Haram militants killed at least 20 government soldiers and 40 civilians in Monguno and Nganzai on June 13, 2020. On June 29, 2020, Boko Haram militants ambushed and killed at least nine government soldiers near Damboa in the state of Borno.  On July 7, 2020, ISWAP militants ambushed and killed more than 30 government soldiers in the village of Bulabulin in the state of Borno.  Three individuals were killed in explosions in Maiduguri in the state of Borno on July 30, 2020.  ISWAP militants claimed to have killed 20 government soldiers in the town of Magumeri and Baga on September 1-3, 2020.  On September 15, 2020, the U.S. Department of State imposed diplomatic sanctions (visa restrictions) against Nigerians accused of undermining democratic principles in the states of Edo and Ondo.  On September 20, 2020, Boko Haram militants ambushed a convoy of government troops near Damboa in the state of Borno, resulting in the death of seven government soldiers.

[Sources: Africa Contemporary Record (ACR), 1968-1969, 1969-1970, 1974-1975, 1975-1976, 1976-1977; Africa Diary, February 21-27, 1966, June 25-July 1, 1967, July 9-15, 1967, August 13-19, 1967, September 17-23, 1967, October 8-14, 1967, November 5-11, 1967, November 26-December 2, 1967, March 3-9, 1968, April 28-May 4, 1968, May 19-25, 1968, June 30-July 6, 1968, June 30-July 6, 1968, August 4-10, 1968, September 22-28, 1968, October 6-12, 1968, October 27-November 2, 1968, November 10-16, 1968, November 24-30, 1968, December 24-31, 1968, February 5-11, 1970, February 19-25, 1970, September 3-9, 1975, February 19-25, 1976, March 18-24, 1976, April 15-21, 1976, May 6-12, 1984, July 15-21, 1984; Africa Report, March 1966, October 1967, February 1968, March 1968, May 1968, June 1968, November 1968, February 1969, March-April 1969, May-June 1969; Africa Research Bulletin (ARB), February 1-28, 1970, September 1-30, 1978, August 1-31, 1979, August 1-31, 1983, October 1-31, 1983, December 1-31, 1983, January 1-31, 1984, March 15, 1986, June 15, 1989; African Union (AU), March 31, 2011, April 12, 2011, April 18, 2011, March 29, 2015; Agence France-Presse (AFP), May 2, 2002; Al Jazeera, May 31, 2013, February 13, 2019; Amnesty International, November 10, 1995; Associated Press (AP), September 24, 1998, October 30, 1998, February 27, 1999, May 19, 1999, May 29, 1999, February 25, 2000, September 8, 2001, November 24, 2002, March 3, 2003, March 23, 2003, March 26, 2003, April 23, 2003, May 3, 2003, August 17, 2003, August 22, 2003; Banks and Muller, 1998, 682-688; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 135; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), April 15, 1998, April 19, 1998, April 20, 1998, April 23, 1998, April 27, 1998, July 8, 1998, October 30, 1998, December 6, 1998, February 22, 1999, May 5, 1999, May 19, 1999, November 28, 1999, February 28, 2000, February 29, 2000, April 19, 2000, May 24, 2000, February 8, 2001, September 8, 2001, September 9, 2001, January 4, 2002, March 21, 2002, March 22, 2002, April 20, 2002, November 13, 2002, March 28, 2003, March 31, 2003, April 12, 2003, April 14, 2003, April 15, 2003, May 15, 2003, August 4, 2003, August 17, 2003, August 18, 2003, August 19, 2003, August 21, 2003, August 22, 2003, January 5, 2004, January 7, 2004, January 13, 2004, January 14, 2004, March 27, 2004, March 29, 2004, April 21, 2004, April 25, 2004, April 30, 2004, May 11, 2004, May 12, 2004, May 31, 2004, June 2, 2004, July 14, 2004, August 31, 2004, September 3, 2004, September 8, 2004, September 22, 2004, October 2, 2004, October 7, 2004, March 17, 2005, March 22, 2005, April 29, 2005, May 9, 2005, July 6, 2005, October 27, 2005, November 8, 2005, December 6, 2005, January 18, 2006, January 24, 2006, February 19, 2006, February 22, 2006, February 23, 2006, February 24, 2006, April 20, 2006, May 15, 2006, June 7, 2006, October 13, 2006, October 16, 2006, October 19, 2006, December 21, 2006, January 16, 2007, April 15, 2007, April 18, 2007, April 23, 2007, May 29, 2007, June 2, 2007, June 14, 2007, June 21, 2007, July 3, 2007, August 3, 2007, September 24, 2007, October 31, 2007, November 19, 2007, November 21, 2007, January 1, 2008, June 22, 2008, July 10, 2008, September 21, 2008, November 28, 2008, November 29, 2008, November 30, 2008, January 30, 2009, February 21, 2009, June 26, 2009, July 13, 2009, July 15, 2009, July 26, 2009, July 27, 2009, July 28, 2009, July 29, 2009, July 20, 2009, July 31, 2009, October 25, 2009, December 29, 2009, January 20, 2010, January 30, 2010, February 10, 2010, March 8, 2010, May 6, 2010, October 12, 2010, November 23, 2010, December 25, 2010, December 27, 2010, December 30, 2010, January 1, 2011, January 10, 2011, January 11, 2011, February 13, 2011, March 3, 2011, April 8, 2011, April 16, 2011, April 18, 2011, April 24, 2011, April 25, 2011, April 26, 2011, May 7, 2011, May 9, 2011, May 29, 2011, May 30, 2011, June 1, 2011, June 16, 2011, June 17, 2011, June 21, 2011, July 3, 2011, July 6, 2011, July 10, 2011, July 12, 2011, August 19, 2011, August 26, 2011, September 2, 2011, September 5, 2011, October 2, 2011, November 1, 2011, November 4, 2011, November 5, 2011, November 26, 2011, December 16, 2011, December 19, 2011, December 23, 2011, December 24, 2011, December 25, 2011, December 30, 2011, January 1, 2012, January 7, 2012, January 10, 2012, January 21, 2012, January 23, 2012, January 28, 2012, February 20, 2012, February 28, 2012, April 30, 2012, June 6, 2012, June 8, 2012, June 17, 2012, June 18, 2012, July 13, 2012, August 5, 2012, August 7, 2012, August 8, 2012, August 12, 2012, September 8, 2012, September 24, 2012, October 7, 2012, November 9, 2012, November 25, 2012, November 26, 2012, December 2, 2012, December 25, 2012, December 30, 2012, January 3, 2013, January 22, 2013, February 1, 2013, February 7, 2013, March 3, 2013, March 19, 2013, March 31, 2013, April 22, 2013, May 7, 2013, May 15, 2013, May 17, 2013, July 7, 2013, July 30, 2013, August 5, 2013, August 13, 2013, August 16, 2013, August 23, 2013, August 27, 2013, August 31, 2013, September 6, 2013, September 8, 2013, September 18, 2013, September 19, 2013, September 20, 2013, September 29, 2013, October 20, 2013, October 25, 2013, November 3, 2013, November 13, 2013, November 23, 2013, December 2, 2013, December 20, 2013, January 14, 2014, January 27, 2014, February 12, 2014, February 16, 2014, February 19, 2014, February 25, 2014, February 27, 2014, March 27, 2015, January 24, 2017, March 3, 2019, June 29, 2020, July 9, 2020, July 30, 2020, September 3, 2020, September 22, 2020; Bloomberg, February 13, 2019; Butterworth, 1976, 419-421; Cable News Network (CNN), February 24, 2000, September 8, 2001, September 11, 2001, November 5, 2001, February 5, 2002, March 25, 2002; The Carter Center, February 16, 1999, February 22, 1999, March 1, 1999, March 28, 2003; Christian Science Monitor (CSM), May 26, 2000; Clodfelter, 1992, 1017-1019; Commonwealth of Nations (CON), November 22, 1998, February 12, 1999, May 18, 1999, April 1, 2003, April 10, 2007, April 22, 2007, April 27, 2007, April 18, 2011, March 23, 2015, March 30, 2015; Degenhardt, 1988, 256-257; Donelan and Grieve, 1973, 259-264; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1325-1326; Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), April 29, 2003, April 15, 2007, April 23, 2007, April 1, 2011, April 12, 2011, April 17, 2011; Economist, July 5, 2001, September 13, 2001, October 18, 2001; European Union (EU), November 10, 1995, March 30, 2015; Facts on File, January 13-19, 1966, February 3-9, 1966, June 9-15, 1966, August 11-17, 1966, September 29-October 5, 1966, October 20-26, 1966, January 8-14, 1970, January 15-21, 1970, January 22-28, 1970, February 5-11, 1970, August 2, 1975, August 23, 1975, February 21, 1976, March 13, 1976, March 27, 1976, May 22, 1976, June 23, 1978, October 6, 1978, August 24, 1979, October 5, 1979, September 20, 2001, October 18, 2001, November 1, 2001; Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), April 10, 1996, April 12, 1996, April 16, 1996; Human Rights Watch (HRW), January 23, 2001, October 25, 2001, January 8, 2002; International Business Times (IBT), January 9, 2017; International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), March 2, 2000; Jessup, 1998, 529-530; International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES), November 27, 1998, February 16, 1999, February 23, 1999, March 2, 1999; International Republican Institute (IRI), February 22, 1999, February 28, 1999; Jessup, 1998, 529-530; Keesing’s Record of World Events, February 13-20, 1965, February 5-12, 1966, September 17-24, 1966, February 4-11, 1967, April 22-29, 1967, June 17-24, 1967, September 9-16, 1967, September 30-October 7, 1967, April 27-May 4, 1968, August 24-31, 1968, January 25-February 1, 1969, May 31-June 7, 1969, November 1-8, 1969, February 28-March 7, 1970, March 14-21, 1970, April 18-25, 1970, August 25-31, 1975, September 3-9, 1975, July 16, 1976, December 19, 1980, January 1984, May 1984, November 1985, January 1987, October 1989, April 1990, July 1990, September 1990, May 1992, July 1992, July 1993, August 1993, November 1993, June 1995, November 1995, March 1996, April 1996, November 1996, March 1997, February 1999; Langer, 1972, 1267-1268; National Democratic Institute (NDI), January 12, 1999, February 22, 1999, April 21, 2003, April 23, 2007, April 11, 2011; New York Times, July 23, 2002, August 4, 2002, November 25, 2002, May 13, 2004, May 19, 2004, April 16, 2007, April 22, 2007; Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), November 28, 2001; Panafrican News Agency (PANA), April 26, 1996, October 23, 1997, February 18, 1999, January 24, 2001; Reuters, March 2, 1998, December 6, 1998, January 4, 1999, January 9, 1999, February 17, 1999, February 18, 1999, February 27, 1999, May 29, 1999, May 31, 1999, January 22, 2001, October 15, 2001, May 27, 2002, August 13, 2002, August 28, 2002, October 14, 2002, October 23, 2002, February 20, 2003, March 3, 2003, April 12, 2003, April 21, 2003, April 22, 2003, May 3, 2003, March 27, 2004, April 22, 2007, November 8, 2010, July 6, 2013, July 28, 2013, July 29, 2013, August 5, 2013, August 12, 2013, August 23, 2013, August 31, 2013, September 6, 2013, September 7, 2013, September 12, 2013, September 18, 2013, September 20, 2013, September 29, 2013, October 6, 2013, October 20, 2013, October 25, 2013, November 4, 2013, November 9, 2013, November 13, 2013, November 23, 2013, November 29, 2013, December 2, 2013, December 13, 2013, December 21, 2013, December 24, 2013, December 30, 2013, March 16, 2015, April 11, 2015, January 9, 2017, December 26, 2017, November 1, 2018, July 7, 2019, July 28, 2019, February 10, 2020, June 9, 2020, June 13, 2020; This Day (Lagos, Nigeria), May 5, 2002; United Nations (UN), December 22, 1995, March 20, 1996; Vanguard (Lagos, Nigeria), May 5, 2002, August 15, 2002; Washington Post, March 2, 1999, February 10, 2002.]

 

Selected Bibliography

Akuchu, Gemuh E. 1977. “Peace Settlement of Disputes: Unsolved Problem for the OAU.” Africa Today 24 (October-December): 39-58.

Anber, Paul. 1967. “Modernisation and Political Disintegration: Nigeria and the Obos,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 5 (2): pp. 163-179.

Amate, C. O. C. 1986. “Intervening in Africa’s Civil Wars.” Inside the OAU: Pan-Africanism in Practice. London: Macmillan Press, 431-458.

Edgell, Alvin G. 1975. “Nigeria/Biafra.” In Morris Davis, editor. Civil Wars and the Politics of International Relief. New York: Praeger Publishers, 50-73.

Kew, Darren. 1999. ” ‘Democrazy: Dem Go Craze, O’: Monitoring the 1999 Nigerian Elections,” A Journal of Opinion, vol. 27 (1), pp. 29-33.

Kohnert, Dirk. 2004. “Election Observation in Nigeria & Madagascar: Diplomatic vs. Technocratic Bias,” Review of African Political Economy, no. 99, pp. 83-101.

Phillips, Claude S. 1980. “Nigeria’s New Political Institutions, 1975-1979,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 18 (1), pp. 1-22.

Wiseberg, Laurie S. 1972. “Christian Churches and the Nigerian Civil War.” Journal of African Studies 2 (Fall): 297-331.

Woronoff, Jon. 1970. “The Nigerian Civil War.” In Organizing African Unity. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc, 395-434.

Zukerman, Morris E. 1970. “Nigerian Crisis: Economic Impact on the North,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 8 (1), pp. 37-54.

sourcesource

Biafran Declaration of Independence

Biafran Declaration of Independence

This is a political declaration of Biafra published after a period of time when the military governor of Eastern Nigeria had taken a critical stance against the people who carried out the July, 1966, coup.  Lt. Col. C. O. Ojukwu denied the legitimacy of the coup leaders to rule and also claimed that the rest of Nigeria, especially those living in the North, had carried out murderous actions (and policies) against Easterners, especially the Igbo people, the largest ethnic group numerically in the East.  His staunch stands can result in comparisons of him to George Washington--or he can be seen as another military opportunist.  All in all Nigeria has had nine coups in the last forty years, not counting unsuccessful attempts. 

Declarations such as this one assert principles and tell a story.  The American Declaration of Independence asserts the primacy of the natural rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness and then, in the long middle section of the document, gives a long list of examples of actions taken by King George III against the Americans in order to tell a story of oppression that justifies the revolution. 

Questions on the reading

What principles does the Biafran declaration assert?  What story does it tell?   The Igbo people of Eastern Nigeria are usually seen as the core of this movement.   How many times are the Igbo mentioned in this document?  Why is this the case?   It might be helpful to pause at the end of each paragraph to reflect on what it might mean and why the authors decided to include the statement.

The Biafran Declaration of Independence

[The following is taken from C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Biafra Selected Speeches and Random Thoughts of C. Odumegwu Ojukwu (NY: Harper & Row, 1969), 191-196]

Resolution passed on May 27, 1967.

WE, THE Chiefs, Elders, and Representatives of Eastern Nigeria, gathered at this Joint Meeting of the Advisory Committee of Chiefs and Elders and the Consultative Assembly, do solemnly declare as follows:

WHEREAS we have been in the vanguard of the national movement for the building of a strong, united, and prosperous Nigeria where no man will be oppressed and have devoted our efforts, talents, and resources to this end;

WHEREAS we cherish certain inalienable human rights and state obligations such as the right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness; the right to acquire, possess, and defend property; the provision of security; and the establishment of good and just government based on the consent of the governed;

WHEREAS in practical demonstration of these beliefs, our people settled in other parts of Nigeria, served their country in many capacities, and contributed immensely to the growth and development of Nigeria;

WHEREAS WE ARE LIVING WITNESSES OF INJUSTICES AND ATROCITIES COMMITTED against Eastern Nigeria, among which are the premeditated murder of over 30,000 of our innocent men, women, and children by Northern Nigerians, the calculated destruction of the property of our sons and daughters, the shameless conversion of 2,000,000 Eastern Nigerians into refugees in their own country, all this without remorse;

WHEREAS in consequence of these and other acts of discrimination and injustice, we have painfully realized that the Federation of Nigeria has failed, and has given us no protection;

WHEREAS in spite of these facts, the government and people of Eastern Nigeria have persisted in their efforts to find a practical and just solution that would preserve the continued existence of Nigeria as one corporate unit and restore peace and confidence as demonstrated by the initiative of our military governor in getting all the military leaders together at Aburi, Ghana;

WHEREAS the hopes which the Aburi Agreement engendered have proved to be misplaced and have been destroyed by a series of acts of bad faith and distortions and finally by a refusal on the part of the "Lagos Government" to implement these and other agreements notwithstanding the fact that they were freely and voluntarily entered into;

WHEREAS the Federation of Nigeria has forfeited any claim to our allegiance by these acts and by the economic, political, and diplomatic sanctions imposed against us by the so-called Federal Government;

AND WHEREAS the object of government is the good of the governed and the will of the people its ultimate sanction;

NOW, THEREFORE, in consideration of these and other facts and injustices, we, the Chiefs, Elders, and Representatives of all the twenty provinces of Eastern Nigeria, assembled in this Joint Meeting of the Advisory Committee of Chiefs and Elders and the Consultative Assembly, at Enugu this 27th day of May, 1967, hereby solemnly:

1. MANDATE His Excellency Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, Military Governor of Eastern Nigeria, to declare at the earliest practicable date Eastern Nigeria a free, sovereign, and independent state by the name and title of the REPUBLIC OF BIAFRA.
2. RESOLVE that the new REPUBLIC OF BIAFRA shall have the full and absolute powers of a sovereign state, and shall establish commerce, levy war, conclude peace, enter into diplomatic relations, and carry out, as of right, other sovereign responsibilities.
3. DIRECT that the REPUBLIC OF BIAFRA may enter into arrangement with any sovereign unit or units in what remains of Nigeria or in any part of Africa desirous of association with us for the purpose of running a common services organization and for the establishment of economic ties.
4. RECOMMEND that the REPUBLIC OF BIAFRA should become a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of African Unity, and the United Nations Organization.
5. RECOMMEND the adoption of a federal constitution based on the new provincial units.
6. REAFFIRM His Excellency's assurance of protection for the persons, properties, and businesses of foreign nationals in our territory.
7. DECLARE our unqualified confidence in the Military Governor of Eastern Nigeria, Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, and assure him of our unreserved support for the way and manner he has handled the crisis in the country.

So help us God.

THE DECLARATION
 [Made by Col. Ojukwu]

Fellow countrymen and women, YOU, the people of Eastern Nigeria:

CONSCIOUS of the supreme authority of Almighty God over all mankind, of your duty to yourselves and posterity;

AWARE that you can no longer be protected in your lives and in your property by any government based outside Eastern Nigeria;

BELIEVING that you are born free and have certain inalienable rights which can best be preserved by yourselves;

UNWILLING to be unfree partners in any association of a political or economic nature;

REJECTING the authority of any person or persons other than the Military Government of Eastern Nigeria to make any imposition of whatever kind or nature upon you;

DETERMINED to dissolve all political and other ties between you and the former Federal Republic of Nigeria;

PREPARED to enter into such association, treaty or alliance with any sovereign state within the former Federal Republic of Nigeria and elsewhere on such terms and conditions as best to subserve your common good;

AFFIRMING your trust and confidence in ME; HAVING mandated ME to proclaim on your behalf, and in your name, that Eastern Nigeria be a sovereign independent Republic, NOW THEREFORE I, LIEUTENANT COLONEL CHUKWUEMEKA ODUMEGWU OJUKWU, MILITARY GOVERNOR OF EASTERN NIGERIA, BY VIRTUE OF THE AUTHORITY, AND PURSUANT TO THE PRINCIPLES, RECITED ABOVE, DO HEREBY SOLEMNLY PROCLAIM THAT THE TERRITORY AND REGION KNOWN AS AND CALLED EASTERN NIGERIA TOGETHER WITH HER CONTINENTAL SHELF AND TERRITORIAL WATERS SHALL HENCEFORTH BE AN INDEPENDENT SOVEREIGN STATE OF THE NAME AND TITLE OF "THE REPUBLIC OF BIAFRA." AND I DO DECLARE THAT:

(i) all political ties between us and the Federal Republic of Nigeria are hereby totally dissolved;

(ii) all subsisting contractual obligations entered into by the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria or by any person, authority, organization, or government acting on its behalf, with any person, authority, or organization, or relating to any matter or thing, within the Republic of Biafra, shall henceforth be deemed to be entered into with the Military Governor of the Republic of Biafra for and on behalf of the Government and people of the Republic of Biafra, and the covenants thereof shall, subject to this Declaration, be performed by the parties according to their tenor;

(v) steps will be taken to open discussions on the question of Eastern Nigeria's due share of the assets of the Federation of Nigeria and personal properties of the citizens of Biafra throughout the Federation of Nigeria;

(vii) we shall keep the door open for association with, and would welcome, any sovereign unit or units in the former Federation of Nigeria or in any other parts of Africa desirous of association with us for the purposes of running a common services organization and for the establishment of economic ties;

(x) it is our intention to remain a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations in our right as a sovereign independent nation.

LONG LIVE THE REPUBLIC OF BIAFRA!AND MAY GOD PROTECT ALL WHO LIVE IN HER. 

SOURCE